The first Romani in the territory of Ukraine: a Trail of Misery and Mastery

Since the very onset of their migration into European territory, the Romani people have been subjected to maltreatment that have only been exacerbating ever since. As Western governments were instituting anti-Roma laws, the situation in the Eastern part of the continent was not so critical. It is the opinion of researchers that the first Romanis got into Ukrainian territory in the 15^th or the 16^th century, as they were escaping slavery and persecution. It was actually this, Eastern European ethnic bifurcation that turned out to be able to adapt and lead semi-sedentary way of life within the first centuries since their relocation.

The complexity of any research into the matter consists in the fact that modern-day territories of Ukraine used to be part of other countries over the centuries, that is: Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Moldavian Principality, Austrian Empire, Ottoman Empire, Russian Empire, then Soviet Union/Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, Czechoslovakia, Poland, Hungary and other state entities. Politics were, of course, impacting migrants and overall public sentiment. Researchers note that most Romanis had migrated into the territories of the present-day Ukraine from the territories of present-day Slovakia, Romania, Moldova, and Poland. By and large, they migrated as a result of persecutions and anti-Roma attacks that were legitimised under law. Nowadays, it is quite difficult to assert whether these sufferings were due to inherent enmity between ethnic groups or whether they were imposed upon by society that was willing to subjugate, overtax, nay sometimes even enslave.  Over a long period of time, a number of countries attempted to impose ban on nomadism and force Romanis into sedentary way of life. Sometimes they were successful, sometimes they were not—but all of these attempts were implemented, first and foremost, in order to impose control. The situation exacerbated due to the fact that overlords of European countries subcontracted the rights to ‘govern’ Romanis to their respective ‘owners’. This made Romani interaction with state powers quite complicated and drew the Roma people away from otherwise feasible integration, as their level of life and amenities deteriorated.

Romanis in the Ukrainian territory: First Written Records and Everyday Life

Documents that have survived into our days prove that first mentions of Romani settlements in the Ukrainian territory date back to the 15^th century. This is confirmed by Polish Royal Charters, Lithuanian Statutes, and Civil Registers of the City of Lviv. Roma migration into the territory of modern-day Ukraine originated in the lands owned and controlled by the Polish state at that time. First Romani migrants are mentioned in Civil Registers of the City of Sanok for the year 1428 and 1436; and also in Lviv City Civil Registers for the year 1428 and 1455.

Anti-Roma sentiment were spreading across the territory of Western Europe at the time, and soon this sentiment reached Poland. As early as in 1557, the Sejm (Parliament) of Poland passed its first ruling to banish Roma people from the country; this was then reiterated in another ruling dated 1565. Persecutions pushed Romanis into less dense frontier regions of Rzeczpospolita—namely, into present-day Southern Ukraine. As of the 16^th century, the Romanis were already an integral part of the Ukrainian society. Moreover, the local population increasingly gave shelter to migrants who were rendering sundry carpentry and smithy services as well as providing entertainment such as fortunetelling, dances, and shows with tamed animals. The Lithuanian Statute of 1588 stressed that it was unacceptable to allow further residence of nomads within the territory of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Sometime later, the government started to impose legal constraints upon those citizens that sided with the nomads: such citizens were threatened with expulsion from the country. The justification for this was that such people could be spies and thus present a threat to the Republic. Since it was not possible to expel Romanis altogether, a ‘policy of control’ was imposed in those lands instead. To that end, a position of ‘Romani king’ was introduced: these were entrusted with supervision over their ‘underlings’. In theory, these positions were to be filled by representatives of Roma communities or at least someone engaged with Roma communities; in practice, these were lower-rank Polish noblemen—who, however, were not exacting a lot of taxes and in fact enjoyed few (if any) privileges in connection with that.

Though the position was a hereditary one, new kings were appointed almost every year. Researchers assume that this was a ‘trampoline’ position whereby anyone who succeeded in it, could then get a better job. The curious fact is that so far, researchers have failed to find a single decree, or an order, or a ruling issued by any of such ‘kings’. So we have no idea what the internal procedure of governance looked like—especially considering the fact that nomads hardly obeyed and hardly submitted themselves to a superior power.

Some Roma of present-day Ukraine were nomadic as they were moving from place to place; others were sedentary. As time went by, Romanis from Left-Bank Ukraine started to move to Slobozhanshchyna (Sloboda Ukraine). First mention of Romanis in Kharkiv Governorship is dated 1699 (the village of Zmiiv). At first, most Romanis preferred to keep wandering rather than settle down. Some researchers opine that this is due to the fact that these territories had only a vague semblance of state power in place, so refugees from other countries kept flowing in all the time. It is worth noting that, as of mid-17^th century, Romanis in the Left Bank Ukraine were not restricted in terms of their civil rights. Some Romanis even joined the Liberation War, as the Registers of the Entire Zaporizhzhia Army also mention Cossacks of Roma origin, with names like Vasko Tsyhan, Fedir Tsyhanskyi, Stepan Tsyhanchuk et al.

Initially, as there were no anti-Roma laws in place and no severe political decisions were made, the Romanis had no reason to stop being a nomadic group. This may be corroborated as one studies archive records. As of 1765, the Chernihiv Military Government Chancellery was notified of the fact that none of the existing settlements of the military governorship have any sedentary Romani residents; whatever Romanis are encountered, are mostly merchants who only come in for the winter fairs. There were some sedentary Romanis who paid taxes; some nomadic Romanis were ‘under the auspices’ of their sedentary acquaintances. In second half of the 17^th century, Romanis were forced into sedentarism en masse. This is the time when settlements appeared such as the village of Tsyhanivka, Kamenskyi County of Chernihiv Governorship. village of Tsyhany in Chervonohrad County in Galicia etc etc.

In the second quarter of the 18th century, Zaporizhzhia Sich was finally annexed by the Russian Empire. This territory was inhabited by Romanis (Servitka Roma and possibly also Vlach Roma) who were engaged in smithery, horse-doctorship, and taming bears. As per records kept by researcher Barannykov, a significant portion of Roma in these territories had already settled down as early as in the 18^th century. It is these Romanis that then merged into the Ukrainian Roma ethnic subgroup by mid-20^th century. Most of them grouped into settlements of 40 to 50 persons in steppe regions (which is preferable if you keep horses). They moved away from their ‘principal places of residence’ occasionally, to participate in miscellaneous fairs and to make money otherwise. Researchers note that Romani traditions suffered from crises this period, as sedentary Roma began to depart from their customary ways and means. They increasingly adapted to their respective environments and absorbed the traditions of the surrounding population. It would be fair to argue that it was the fear of possible assimilation that convinced some families to categorically reject the sedimentary lifestyle.

As of 1792, there were 1,000 Romani ‘state-owned villagers’ living in Katerynoslav Governorship. In the 17^th and the 18^th centuries, most Romanis dwelled in tents, as is confirmed by sources like a research by I. Markevych: “For instance, registers submitted by the Slobidska sotnia (county) mention Kozorenko and his household residing under a single tent; Zolotorenko and his family under a single tent; Andrii Bryzenko and his family under a single tent”.

Documents from the Kharkiv Historical Archive indicate that Romanis of that time were of differing social status and material wealth. «One Roma from Baturyn, a Vasyl Myna, has an estate in the amount of 200 rubles and feeds on bread», «Pavlo Mashchenko whose daughter is to be married, offers a dowry of a couple of horses, two huge silver cups, plus dresses and other female attire» (2). Some other documents are even more specific, as they mention horses and moveable property (cost ranging from 20-50 rubles to over a 100 rubles) owned by Romas.

Romanis living in the territory of Ukraine were forced to pay rent to the Military Treasury. This situation somewhat changed at the early 18^th century; since that time, the rent was due and payable once a year in kind of farming goods. Ahead of the collection, announcements were maid in villages, towns, and cities, whereby residents were invited to become volunteers who would administer the taxation of Romanis. In this way, the authorities managed to avoid getting into direct contact with the Romani population; that said, the authorities instructed these middlemen taxer volunteers not to get carried away and to apply only lenient taxes upon the Romanis. Since 1757, temporary otamans (chieftains) were permitted to hold court sessions to examine infringements committed by and resolve disputes arising within the Romani community, as well as to ensure that the Romanis do not engage in any improprieties. Nine years later, the Romani population was legally obliged to choose a permanent place of residence (on a par with other citizens) and thus become subject to administration by ‘centurional’ and ‘regimental’ local authorities. As far as rights were concerned, Romanis were of lower status at the time as compared with local villagers; for instance, murder of a Romani was subject to a monetary fine half the monetary fine payable for a murdered local villager.

In the Right Bank Ukraine, further rights and obligations of Romanis were regulated by universals (executive decrees) issued by Kyiv Civil and Military Committee—which took enormous effort to make Romanis sedentary. For instance: Romanis were instructed to select a permanent place of residence and notify the authorities of their selected place of residence within 1 (one) year. If they failed to do so, they would be designated as tramps (nomads) and subject to persecution. Such actions were effective and mid-18^th century saw a mass transition of Romanis to sedentarianism.

Masterful Horsemen and Smiths

Most documents dated 18^th to 19^th centuries mention ‘a special Roma way of making money’ which is tantamount to ‘the common Romani trade’. These included, in particular, horse trading—that, undoubtedly, was the favourite occupation of the Romanis—their passion indeed. Researchers opine that herein lies the etymology of the proverb: trading like a gypsy trading horses. Regular preoccupation with animal tending and trading brought a reputation with it. Romanis were probably the best horsemen who knew how to take care of horses and how to treat them (medically) in the event of any health issues or injuries. "We come across gypsy horsemen like residents of Chernihiv, Ivan Bilousenko and Mykyta Romanovych, gypsies experienced in horsemanship and horse tending…". Another trade the Romanis enjoyed and were skilful in was the smithery. Romologists stress that adjectives gypsy and smithy were used interchangeably in common speech (2,8). As of the 18th century, there were five Romanis residing in Slabyn Military County; of these, four were metalworkers and bear-trainers.

As we investigate into the moneymaking practices of Romanis, one cannot but mention other earning methods employed by them, i.e. fortunetelling and charms, healing people bitten by snakes etc. There were people in Gypsy encampments skilled in folk methods of treatment, herbmanship and suchlike. This was all due to regular relocations and thus poor access to conventional health care. Whenever an encampment arrived at a new territory, locals would often seek medical advice from Roma folk healers. If their financial situation was critically dire, nomads would resort to thievery—but this moneymaking method was frowned upon by their community as such action would incur the wrath of the locals and deteriorate Roma relations with their host communities. Fortune-tellers and healers were often acting in lieu of psychologists as they solaced people in distress and gave them some hope for the best. This was particularly notable during the Second World War, as women were waiting for their beloved ones and needed emotional support. After they arrived at a new location, Romani women went to visit the local villagers and offered to tell their fortune, asking for whatever payment the locals could afford; another widespread activity was selling various items. Men were employed as season workers but their payment was not due until the end of the season. So it were women who earned money faster to accommodate daily needs; oftentimes, women were breadwinners for the entire encampment.

Another thing worth mentioning is the mastery of Romanis who manufactured horseshoes, кремо варто зазначити про майстерність ромів у виготовленні підков, needles, and buckles. Craftsmanship of Romanis as metalworkers prompted them to take up cauldronwrightship, tinning, and then also manufacturing gold and silver jewellery. Academic researchers emphasise that traditionally, Romani population was engaged in taming animals—particularly, Carpathian bears. They were also busy extracting coal, earth soap, or reselling second-hand stuff. And then, last but not least, there was the Roma musical art: folk concerts whereby they made money with their performership talent.

For centuries, Ukrainians have been ‘the people of the land’ engaged in agriculture—and so they tried to train the Romanis how to cultivate farmland. The Romanis, however, were always reluctant to take up this trade, for reasons well-known to them. Later, representatives of the authorities as well as academic researchers tried to attribute this reluctance to Romani self-isolation. The real reason, however, lay deeper: the crafts and trades which the Romanis used to earn a living called for regular change of place of abode. Once men were done with season jobs, once women told everyone’s fortune and healed whomever they could, there was no more money to be made in that place. Land cultivation is an occupation which cannot be learnt in a month: it requires plenty of time—and funds for one’s upkeep were needed every single day. So the encampment moved to another territory, only to come back not earlier than in two or three years. Those who were forced to work on land in a sedentary mode of life often succumbed to starving, then ditched the whole thing and rejoined the travelling band. Surviving documents (2,5) confirm that Romanis rarely went into agriculture; they instead preferred to ‘dabble’ in conventional Romani crafts and trades, including horse tending.

Having the band (encampment) as their base allowed Romanis to get themselves engaged in the local economy. Men tended to get some seasonal jobs, as not every villager owned a horse but every single one had a field to be ploughed—and so they rented Romani horses. The Romanis made money by harvesting and preparing stocks for winter. And they were doing that jointly with the Ukrainian population. Case in point provided by the researcher in question is the Yankovskyi family who were sedentary and whose man of the house was working and paying taxes as he was purchasing horses to work in a state-owned factory. Historians note that the upkeep of the Romanis rested mostly on the shoulders of the local population.

Attitudes of the Locals

Interaction between the nomads and the locals were far from perfect at any time; they, however, always interacted economically. This interaction was uninterrupted, albeit not without mistrust and conflicts. The historians note, however, that the locals always liked the way the Romanis were ‘close to the common folk’, never attempting to get into the wealthy social strata. This made Romanis closer than other foreigners. Maybe it was these habits and skills that helped Romanis find common ground with the local population. Their food, attire, religion etc was familiar (sometimes even the same). All of the above made Ukrainians come to some peace with their new neighbours.

As time went by, the villagers got somewhat more used to incoming Romanis. Ethnologists stress that the local population developed an interaction and sometimes even close and friendly relations. Sometimes, locals who were elderly and childless, or lonely widows, accepted the Romanis into their homes. Romanis liked to come winter to the same place and tried to make it before the onset of the freezing temperatures whereas the locals were sometimes even waiting for ‘their’ nomads.

Whichever country the Romanis came to, they tried to find a way to demonstrate, through their appearance, that they accept the religion of the people amid whom they reside. As early as in the 18^th century, they adopted Christianity. This factor brought nomads and local sedentary population closer to each other. At that time, Romanis were deeply religious, albeit also inclined to their own traditions. The locals often perceived those as superstitions but were not too judging.